Do You Know How Many Bubbles Are in a Bar of Soap?

This wasn’t just a hypothetical question—it was one of the many impossible “Literacy Test” questions used to block Black Americans from voting. Black voters in the South faced questions that ranged from absurd (“How many bubbles in a bar of soap?”) to punitive, with questions about obscure state laws or requiring verbatim recitations of the Constitution. These tactics were aimed at ensuring that Black Americans were, in practice, barred from the ballot box.

As Election Day approaches, let’s break down the history and persistence of Black voter suppression, examining where these methods started, who fought against them, and how new tactics continue to threaten voting access today.

The Rise of Voter Suppression Tactics: Poll Taxes, Literacy Tests, and Grandfather Clauses

After the 15th Amendment was passed in 1870, guaranteeing the right to vote regardless of race, Southern states quickly introduced measures to circumvent it. Poll taxes, literacy tests, and “good character” clauses were added to keep Black citizens from voting. Poll taxes were especially effective; by 1939, Alabama newspapers explicitly defended the poll tax as “essential for the preservation of white supremacy” . These taxes—usually $1 or $2—added up, especially since they were cumulative, meaning missed payments from past elections barred voters from future ones.

Literacy Tests: These tests were notoriously biased and designed to fail Black applicants. In 1900, roughly 50% of voting-age Black men were illiterate compared to 12% of white men , which made them prime targets for these assessments. For Black people who could read, discriminatory clerks often manipulated grading criteria or introduced near-impossible questions.

The Grandfather Clause: This measure allowed only those whose grandfathers had been eligible to vote to skip poll taxes and literacy tests. Since most Black Americans’ grandfathers had been enslaved, the clause effectively nullified any possibility for many Black citizens to vote.

These tactics were brutally effective: by 1892, only 6% of eligible Black men in Mississippi were registered to vote, down from 67% in 1867 .

The Civil Rights Movement and Key Leaders: Fighting for Voting Rights

Civil rights leaders like Fannie Lou Hamer, who grew up as a sharecropper in Mississippi, fought tirelessly for voting rights. Hamer didn’t even know she was eligible to vote until she was 44, and her activism led to brutal beatings and imprisonment . Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., John Lewis, and Medgar Evers, among others, brought national attention to voting rights. Their efforts led to the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act (VRA) of 1965, which prohibited discriminatory practices like literacy tests and required federal approval (preclearance) for voting changes in areas with histories of discrimination .

The VRA had a profound impact: by 1968, Black voter registration in the South soared, particularly in states like Mississippi, where eligible Black voters registered increased from 6% to 60% within a few years .

Modern-Day Suppression: Voter ID Laws, Polling Closures, and Felony Disenfranchisement

Despite these victories, Black voters still face barriers. The 2013 Supreme Court decision in Shelby County v. Holder struck down a key part of the VRA, allowing states to pass restrictive voting laws without federal oversight . Since then, 23 states have enacted new voter restrictions.

Voter ID Laws: While voter ID laws are presented as a way to prevent fraud, studies show that they disproportionately affect minority communities. About 25% of Black voting-age citizens lack a government-issued ID, compared to only 8% of white citizens . The costs and travel requirements associated with obtaining an ID create an extra hurdle for many Black voters.

Polling Place Closures: States freed from federal oversight have closed hundreds of polling locations, especially in majority-Black communities. In Georgia, the number of polling places has dropped by nearly 10% since Shelby, affecting predominantly Black areas. These closures increase wait times and make voting more difficult .

Felony Disenfranchisement: The practice of barring those with felony convictions from voting is particularly severe in states like Mississippi, where a single felony conviction can mean a lifetime voting ban . Nationwide, over 6 million Americans are disenfranchised due to felony convictions, and Black Americans are disproportionately affected by these bans.

Key Figures and Modern Champions of Voting Rights

Many politicians, activists, and organizations continue to champion voting rights. Figures like Stacey Abrams in Georgia have raised national awareness of these issues. Abrams’ efforts in Georgia, through her organization Fair Fight, highlighted how voter suppression affected the 2018 gubernatorial election, where her opponent, then-Secretary of State Brian Kemp, had overseen the purging of over 1.4 million voter registrations .

The Brennan Center for Justice and the ACLU have also been instrumental in challenging voter suppression tactics in court, pushing for legislative reforms to protect voting rights nationwide. Leaders like Senator Raphael Warnock and Congresswoman Terri Sewell continue to advocate for voting rights protections, pushing for new legislation to counteract restrictive voting laws.

The Ongoing Struggle and the Power of the Vote

America’s voting history reveals that while legal barriers may change form, they persist in effect. Today’s restrictions may not involve poll taxes or literacy tests, but they reflect the same underlying intent: to limit Black voting power. With each new restriction, activists and communities push back, underscoring the resilience of Black voters in the face of ongoing suppression.

As Election Day nears, recognizing this history and honoring those who fought for voting rights is critical. Voting remains an act of resistance, especially for Black Americans, who have had to demand and defend their right at every step. The battle for voting rights is far from over, but every ballot cast continues to build a more inclusive democracy.

Resources and References

• Brennan Center for Justice on Voter Suppression

• The ACLU’s Campaign Against Voter Suppression

• History of the Voting Rights Act